qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook

The aim of this article is not to act as a practical guide on how to conduct qualitative research, but is an attempt to give an introduction to qualitative research methods and their use in health-related research. It is important at this point to address not only what is present in data, but also what is missing from the data. There exist numerous purposeful sampling designs. In this stage, condensing large data sets into smaller units permits further analysis of the data by creating useful categories. While computer packages can help with the intensive process of analysis and the management of large data sets, they are not a substitute for immersion in the data, and thorough knowledge that can enable the researcher to make comparisons, identify patterns and develop interpretations.6 There are different packages available: Ethnograph, Atlas and NUD.IST are the mostly used. Individual codes are not fixed - they can evolve throughout the coding process, the boundaries of the code can be redrawn, codes can be split into two or more codes, collapsed with other codes and even promoted to themes. Recently, there has been a growing recognition that the quantitative-qualitative debate and distinction is unnecessary and that it would be more fruitful for the relation between the two methods to be complementary and overlapping rather than exclusive.6 In fact, neither qualitative nor quantitative research is superior to the other; there are weaknesses and strengths in each method. This involves identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with a phenomenon of interest (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2011). An adaptive intervention modifies what an individual subject (or community for a group-based trial) receives in response to his or her preferences or initial responses to an intervention. Analysis at this stage is characterized by identifying which aspects of data are being captured and what is interesting about the themes, and how the themes fit together to tell a coherent and compelling story about the data. Marty D, Rapp C, McHugo G, Whitley R. Factors influencing consumer outcome monitoring in implementation of evidence-based practices: results from the National EBP Implementation Project. National Library of Medicine Palinkas, L. A., Fuentes, D., Garcia, A. R., Finno, M., Holloway, I. W., & Chamberlain, P. (2012). We refer to the process as semi-quantitative coding because the actual referent and the phenomena being so classified are diffuse and not widely understood or agreed upon in American culture. To what types of research questions is qualitative research relevant? Administration of this protocol serves three important functions: 1) the respondent has time to feel comfortable with the ethnographer, 2) the ethnographer develops rapport with the subject and can elicit more honest answers or disclosures, and 3) the respondent provides rich datatheir storiesand answers the questions poised by the ethnographer. The types and variety of activities to which children and adolescents are exposed is partly a function of the context and culture in which they grow up. Likewise, each staff member must be carefully trained to understand the question in the same way. Staff members report that it is best to record for a half to three-quarters of an hour on one digital voice file, take a break, and resume the interview but with a different digital voice file. and Huberman, A.M. 1994: Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook , second edition. If that subject is contacted or observed in the field on other dates, each different contact should have its own field note with a different file name, but that persons ID number is recorded in the file name and the header. This article cannot provide more guidance about how to complete such a report. Advancing a conceptual model of evidence-based practice implementation in child welfare. Further, each field note was linked to its associated expenses. Ream Geoffrey, Johnson Bruce D, Sifaneck Stephen, Dunlap Eloise. This includes identifying textual material (appropriate quotes) that exemplify the themes (or categories) relevant for the written report. Such frameworks suggest that identification and recruitment of potential study participants will place greater emphasis on the priorities and local knowledge of community partners than on the need to sample for variation or uniformity. Statistical power and optimal design for multisite randomized trials. Alternatives to criterion sampling may be more appropriate to the specific functions of mixed methods, however. A second limitation is that digital voice files grow to be very large and become more difficult to handle. Miles, a social psychologist, had a career-long interest in strategies for educational reform. Article Similarly, multistage purposeful sampling designs like opportunistic or emergent sampling, allow the option of adding to a sample to take advantage of unforeseen opportunities after data collection has been initiated (Patton, 2001, p. 240) (Multistage III). Selecting a strategy that gives emphasis to one does not mean that it cannot be used for the other. Increasingly, researchers who rely primarily upon federal funding to support qualitative research must grapple with review committees and funding decisions which increasingly insist that qualitative researchers obtain and analyze data to build towards (or include) a quantitative component. Recently there have been several calls for the use of mixed method designs in implementation research (Proctor et al., 2009; Landsverk et al., 2012; Palinkas et al. Interviews are the most common techniques used to gather research information. Ethnograph v 5. In this stage of data analysis the analyst must focus on the identification of a more simple way of organizing data. Data-sets can range from short, perfunctory response to an open-ended survey question to hundreds of pages of interview transcripts. When conducting a Hybrid Type 1 design (conducting a process evaluation of implementation in the context of a clinical effectiveness trial), the qualitative data could be used to inform the findings of the effectiveness trial. PubMed Central Many other details are fleshed out in the research methods section of the application and in the development of protocols and data collection devicesas well in other prior publications (Davis et al 2006; Lewis et al 1992). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Another example is a study aimed at exploring general practitioners perceptions of the effects of their profession and training on their attitudes to illness in themselves and colleagues.29, Qualitative work can help in identifying cultural and social factors that affect health care positively or negatively. Indeed, writing the field notes may take more time than making the observations. Differences among qualitative researchers exist on matters of ontology, epistemology, data collection methods and methods of evaluation. Qualitative research creates Mountains of Words. Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds. With both quantitative and qualitative data, the analysts can write reports that are richer because they contain both numerically viable information and detailed understanding of phenomena. The role of staff turnover in the implementation of evidence-based practices in health care. In their story is the rich data which qualitative methodology is so excellent at obtaining. While completing the informed consent process, each subject is asked to give a preferred code name which is the only identifying information recorded during interviews. [1] Thematic analysis is often used in mixed-method designs - the theoretical flexibility of TA makes it a more straightforward choice than approaches with specific embedded theoretical assumptions. [1] Thematic analysis is often understood as a method or technique in contrast to most other qualitative analytic approaches - such as grounded theory, discourse analysis, narrative analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis - which can be described as methodologies or theoretically informed frameworks for research (they specify guiding theory, appropriate research questions and methods of data collection, as well as procedures for conducting analysis). When qualitative protocols are conducted, they provide incentives for completing interviews. Retail marijuana purchases in designer and commercial markets in New York City: Sales units, weights, and prices per gram. After several weeks of ethnographic observations and systematic review of field notes, and drawing upon the collective experience of the research team, staff members collaborate to develop a protocol that is specifically designed to elicit rich qualitative data. Qualitative methods in social work research (2nd ed.). Qualitative research studies typically produce very large amount of data that needs to be managed efficiently. [1] If themes are problematic, it is important to rework the theme and during the process, new themes may develop. "[28], Given that qualitative work is inherently interpretive research, the positionings, values, and judgments of the researchers need to be explicitly acknowledged so they are taken into account in making sense of the final report and judging its quality. Cresswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). New York: Oxford University Press. The latter are similar to the use of quantitative central tendency measures (e.g., mean, median, and mode). While these programs are efficient in searching for individual words or organizing some collection of words or text, they do so across the entire database. Toward a Unifying Social Cognitive Theory of Career and Academic Interest, Choice, and Performance [Monograph]. Some questions in the interview protocol and answers stored in the database may be especially amenable to transformation into quantitative codes like those used in typical surveys. To assist in this process it is imperative to code any additional items that may have been missed earlier in the initial coding stage. One additional software packagegotomypc.comnow permits all project staff (with appropriate password protection) to access and read (and copy data) from the FileMaker Pro database while working from remote sites (e.g. Data may be missing for a given question because the interviewer has not yet completed the interview with that subject, or the question may have been appropriately skipped following skip instructions in the interview protocol. Community-based participatory research for health. Correspondence to How many interviews are enough? For example, the qualitative protocol (and database) contains four questions about violence before Katrina, during Katrina, shortly after Katrina, and at the current time. Qualitative research creates mountains of words. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, Henke, R. M., Chou, A. F., Chanin, J. C., Zides, A. This can result in a weak or unconvincing analysis of the data. The .gov means its official. A good level of self-awareness is necessary in the researcher in order to reduce possible biases. Saldaas research methods have been used and cited internationally for studies in K-12 and higher education, the fine arts, business, technology, social sciences, government, social services, communication, human development, sport, health care, and medicine. 225260). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Although many words may be available in the qualitative dataset, the answers given by most subjects to questions like these can be classified into categories for which numeric codes can be assigned. We will call this structured qualitative research. Choosing qualitative data analysis software: Atlas/ti and Nudist compared. Field notes -- written observations of the field setting that record what is seen, heard, or observed. The ethnographers needs considerable self-discipline to make 1-3 hours of direct observations in the field, and then spend several hours writing field notes based upon those observations. This aspect of data coding is important because during this stage researchers should be attaching codes to the data to allow the researcher to think about the data in different ways. Others use the term deliberatively to capture the inductive (emergent) creation of themes. For Braun and Clarke, there is a clear (but not absolute) distinction between a theme and a code - a code captures one (or more) insights about the data and a theme encompasses numerous insights organised around a central concept or idea. This can be avoided if the researcher is certain that their interpretations of the data and analytic insights correspond. This studys design and its analysis were not pre-registered. The History of Sociology. Since qualitative research does not aim to enumerate, it is sometimes viewed as the exact opposite to quantitative methods and the two methods are frequently presented as antagonists. [Google Scholar] 26. However, ethnographic probing and analysis of their stories revealed that a negative answer did not mean the absence of physical assault. [1][13], After this stage, the researcher should feel familiar with the content of the data and should be able to start to identify overt patterns or repeating issues the data. (2002). Strategies for interpreting and reporting intervention effects for subgroups. An official website of the United States government. (2009). (2011). While systematic sampling may be associated with a post-positivist tradition of qualitative data collection and analysis, such sampling is not inherently limited to such analyses and the need for such sampling is not inherently limited to post-positivist qualitative approaches (Patton, 2002). They are also deferentially reinforced for continuing their engagement, and for developing their skills, in different activity domains. Purposeful sampling and optimal design. This article will report on strategies for planning, organizing, collecting, managing, storing, retrieving, coding, analyzing, and writing so that qualitative methods can most efficiently manage the Mountain of Words collected in large-scale ethnographic projects. In this paper, we present different approaches to the use of purposeful sampling strategies in implementation research. 273296). Even a small qualitative project easily generates thousands of words. An official website of the United States government. Grounded theory approach is a commonly used qualitative method in the social sciences to inductively generate or discover a theory out of the data.9 Phenomenology and ethnography are more commonly used qualitative approaches in health care and will be highlighted below. This allows for one software program to maintain most of the information and data to be collected during qualitative research. Lent, R. W., Hackett, G. and Brown, S. D. 1999. informed consent procedures approved by the institutional review board. From the perspective of qualitative methodology, participants who meet or exceed a specific criterion or criteria possess intimate (or, at the very least, greater) knowledge of the phenomenon of interest by virtue of their experience, making them information-rich cases. At the same time, data on the stability of interests suggest that interest change does occur for some people during their post-adolescent years. Both coding reliability and code book approaches typically involve early theme development - with all or some themes developed prior to coding, often following some data familiarisation (reading and re-reading data to become intimately familiar with its contents). (2007). [14] Thematic analysis can be used to analyse both small and large data-sets. If the potential map 'works' to meaningfully capture and tell a coherent story about the data then the researcher should progress to the next phase of analysis. A good example of this is the study of patients decisions about whether or not to take anti-hypertensive drugs.27 There are similar studies on issues such as the use of antibiotics in general practice and patient compliance. Recently, more short-term ethnographic and cross-cultural studies have been undertaken, for example, studies sponsored by international development agencies or student exchange projects.12, Qualitative research instruments used for data collection include interviews, observations, and analysis of documents. U.S. federal funding supports mostly structured qualitative research, which is designed to test hypotheses using semi-quantitative coding and analysis. Implementing cognitive behavioral therapy in the real world: a case study of two mental health centers. Dunlap Eloise, Johnson Bruce D. Ethical and legal dilemmas in ethnographic field research: Three case studies. While the developed procedures may be reasonably efficient and effective in locating and retrieving appropriate and highly relevant qualitative textual segments, the analyst retains the responsibility for all aspects of preparing an article for journal publication. Coherent recognition of how themes are patterned to tell an accurate story about the data. Brown CH, Wyman PA, Guo J, Pea J. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. It also leads to discussion about the difficulties and inconsistencies that the main work will entail. This question is more important if the interviewee knows that the interviewer is a doctor. Field expenditures are linked to units of work so productivity is measured, many staff in various locations have access to use and analyze the data, quantitative data can be derived from data that is primarily qualitative, and improved efficiencies of resources are developed. American Journal of Public Health, For example, one paper from the Transient Domesticity project analyzed qualitative data about beatings in childhood. Sifaneck Stephen J, Ream Geoffrey, Johnson Bruce D, Dunlap Eloise. The sustainability of evidence-based practices in routine mental health agencies. Investigators must often choose between two types of staff. about navigating our updated article layout. Barriers to evidence-based practice implementation: Results of a qualitative study. 1986. Criterion-i sampling was most frequently used in mixed methods implementation studies that employed a simultaneous design where the qualitative method was secondary to the quantitative method or studies that employed a simultaneous structure where the qualitative and quantitative methods were assigned equal priority. A comprehensive analysis of what the themes contribute to understanding the data. 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